The eighteenth century was a turning point in Indian history, marked by the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of coastal regions. As inland powers weakened, port cities grew into economic hubs, attracting capital, skills, and trade. Historians have offered various explanations for the East India Company’s rise—some blamed Mughal decline, others pointed to British naval power or alliances with Indian elites. But a deeper shift was geographic: coastal regions gained dominance over the inland. Tropical inland areas faced droughts and poor yields, while coastal zones offered food security and trade access. European traders used these advantages to build alliances and attract resources. As inland states fragmented, the coast took control—reshaping India’s political future.

Primarily a study of India, Origins of Colonialism (Cambridge University Press, 2025)  extends this argument to other regions of the tropical lands the Europeans colonized.